# Career-Connected Pathway Programs ## expand\_more ## Key Issue Overview A growing number of employers identify the skills gap as a significant obstacle to economic growth and workforce development ([U.S. Chamber of Commerce](https://www.uschamber.com/workforce/closing-the-skills-gap)). However, many students do not have access to well-defined and structured pathways with strong alignment between academic preparation and future career opportunities. This disconnect highlights the need to more effectively integrate high school, postsecondary education, and the labor market. Career-oriented comprehensive programs such as Career Academies, P-TECH, Tech Prep, and Linked Learning are designed to merge rigorous academic coursework with practical career training, including internships and industry-recognized credentials. These initiatives aim to ensure a smooth transition into postsecondary education and successful careers. Unlike short-term vocational programs designed primarily for rapid workforce entry, these programs focus on establishing structured, long-term partnerships between K-12 districts, postsecondary institutions, and local employers. This approach provides comprehensive support to students for their transitions to both college and in-demand careers. The studies reviewed in this section provide evidence on career-connected pathway programs and outline strategies for effective implementation. While the impacts of these programs may vary, the evidence suggests that balancing academic and career preparation, along with tailoring programs to meet the needs of students and local contexts, can enhance their effectiveness. ### Research Evidence expand\_more This collection of studies examines the impact of career-connected pathway programs such as Career Academies, P-TECH, Tech Prep, and Linked Learning. Evidence consistently shows these structured, career-focused programs enhance key high school outcomes, including high school graduation rates, credit accumulation, college readiness, career-specific skill development, internship experiences, and dual-enrollment participation ([Kemple, 2004](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED484616); [Hemelt et al.,2019](https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/study/90328); [Fitzgerald et al., 2016](https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED571830.pdf); [Caspary & Warner, 2020](https://collegecareerpathways.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/LinkedLearning-EvaluationResearch-2020.pdf); [Sevak et al., 2021](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED614751); [Dixon & Rosen, 2022](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED618886); [Fletcher & Dumford, 2021a](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1316407)). Long-term impacts vary, but several programs have demonstrated increased earnings and higher associate degree attainment, particularly benefiting young men ([Kemple & Willner, 2008](https://www.educationandemployers.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/career-academies-longterm-impacts-2008.pdf); [Page, 2012](https://clear.dol.gov/study-or-without-summaries/page-l-c-2012); [Rosen et al., 2023](https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED632477.pdf)). Linked Learning Career Academies Career-Focused Dual Enrollment Pathways ## Linked Learning **What the Studies Tested:** - The studies examined how Linked Learning, an approach that integrates college-preparatory academics, technical education, work-based learning, and personalized support, influences students’ high school success and postsecondary outcomes. Implementation is led by district and school staff, supported by regional intermediaries and partnerships with employers and colleges. Evaluations include districtwide initiatives in California across certified and non-certified pathways ([Fitzgerald et al., 2016](https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED571830.pdf); [Arshan & Bosetti, 2018](https://www.sri.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/CEi3_Technical-Report_Final.pdf); [Caspary & Warner, 2020](https://collegecareerpathways.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/LinkedLearning-EvaluationResearch-2020.pdf)) and a targeted Vermont-based initiative designed specifically for students with disabilities([Sevak et al., 2021](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED614751)). **What the Studies Found:** - The studies consistently found that Linked Learning improved high school outcomes, increasing the number of credits earned, boosting graduation rates, and strengthening college readiness overall ([Fitzgerald et al., 2016;](https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED571830.pdf) [Arshan & Bosetti, 2018;](https://www.sri.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/CEi3_Technical-Report_Final.pdf) [Caspary & Warner, 2020](https://collegecareerpathways.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/LinkedLearning-EvaluationResearch-2020.pdf)). Positive impacts were especially notable among students with low prior achievement, English language learners, and African American students ([Caspary & Warner, 2020](https://collegecareerpathways.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/LinkedLearning-EvaluationResearch-2020.pdf)). However, the impacts on longer-run outcomes were more mixed. While some subgroups were more likely to enroll in postsecondary education or participate in work-based learning ([Sevak et al., 2021](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED614751)), the overall effects on persistence and employment outcomes were limited. *Click the dropdowns below to read summaries of each study included in the overall synthesis. Unless noted otherwise, all reported effects are statistically significant at the p<.05 level. Studies are linked (see author name and publication date). When available, we link an open access version of the study*. [Explore our methodology](/rc-methodology) Open all sections Close all sections ### Linked Learning Certified Pathways (Fitzgerald et al., 2016) expand\_more **Study:** **The Effect of Linked Learning Certified Pathways on Selected Student Outcomes (**[**Fitzgerald et al., 2016**](https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED571830.pdf)**)** **Intervention**: Participation in Linked Learning certified pathways (LLCP). This career-themed high school program integrates academic courses, career technical education, work-based learning, and comprehensive support services. This study focused on students who enrolled in the same LLCP in both grades 11 and 12 in the same high school. **Context**: - This study evaluated Linked Learning in six of nine school districts that participated in the California Linked Learning District Initiative from 2009 to 2015. The study included only six districts because two districts did not agree to share data, and one did not have any certified Linked Learning pathways during the study period. **Research Design**: Propensity Score Matching **Findings**: Compared to similar students in the same districts who did not participate in any Linked Learning pathway, participants in Linked Learning certified pathways were… - More likely to graduate high school across all three cohorts (2010-11, 2011-12, and 2012-13) - More likely to attend school regularly in the 2011-2012 cohort - Less likely to be suspended during 12th grade (2011-12 cohort) - More likely to complete[ A-G requirements](https://www.cde.ca.gov/ci/gs/hs/hsgrtable.asp) for UC and CSU (2011-12 cohort) - More likely to complete A-G requirements for CSU admission (2012-13 cohort) - More likely to enroll in postsecondary education (2011-12 cohort) **Subgroup Findings**: - Compared to their peers in suburban areas, rural Linked Learning participants were 6 percentage points more likely to enroll in college, whereas suburban students experienced a 2 percentage point increase. - Compared to students below the median in FRPL eligibility, students in higher FRPL districts saw a 5.5 percentage point gain in FAFSA completion, while those below the median saw a 3 percentage point gain. ### Linked Learning: Summary of Effects (Caspary & Warner, 2020) expand\_more **Study:** **Linked Learning Student Outcomes: Summary of Effects on High School and Early Postsecondary Education (**[**Caspary & Warner, 2020**](https://collegecareerpathways.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/LinkedLearning-EvaluationResearch-2020.pdf)**)** **Intervention**: Participation in Linked Learning pathways. This career-themed high school program integrates academic courses, career technical education, work-based learning, and comprehensive support services. This study is the final brief which summarizes high school outcomes and early postsecondary outcomes of the 9 years of the Linked Learning initiative. Earlier studies each analyzed distinct outcomes, focusing on different student cohorts at various stages of the initiative: - Warner et al. ([2016](https://www.sri.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/ll_y7_exec_summary_revised_2018aug28_0.pdf)) conducted a 7-year evaluation examining high school outcomes, including graduation rates, dropout rates, and college readiness, for graduating cohorts from 2013 to 2015. - Caspary & Warner ([2017](https://collegecareerpathways.org/publications/linked-learning-and-postsecondary-transitions/)) assessed early postsecondary outcomes, focusing specifically on college enrollment and persistence. - Harris et al. ([2019](https://collegecareerpathways.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/sri_lldi_community_college_report_feb_2019.pdf)) focused explicitly on community college performance, examining on-track indicators such as full-time enrollment and credit accumulation. **Context**: - This study evaluated California’s Linked Learning District Initiative, implemented across nine diverse school districts from 2009 to 2015. Districts varied widely in size (5,000 to 185,000 students) and predominantly served nonwhite and socioeconomically disadvantaged students. Linked Learning could take the form of stand-alone small schools or academies within larger comprehensive high schools. **Research Design**: Propensity Score Matching **Findings**: Compared to students in traditional comprehensive high schools, students in Linked Learning districts… - were 2.1 percentage points less likely to drop out - were 3.1 percentage points more likely to graduate - accumulated 8.9 more credits - completed 0.9 more college-prep course ([A-G requirements](https://www.cde.ca.gov/ci/gs/hs/hsgrtable.asp)) - were 5.3 percentage points more likely to be college-ready in ELA **Subgroup Findings:** *For each subgroup below, results compare Linked Learning students to similar students in the same subgroup who did not participate in Linked Learning pathways (i.e., matched comparison students with similar background characteristics).* - Students with low prior achievement (defined as scoring below “basic” on 8th-grade English Language Arts state assessments) - 4.5 percentage points less likely to drop out - 7.6 percentage points more likely to graduate - 15.5 more credits accumulated - 5.7 percentage points more likely to enroll in college directly after high school - African American students - No effect on dropout, graduation, or test scores - 15.2 more credits accumulated - 11.6 percentage points more likely to enroll in a 4-year institution - English Language Learners - 2.8 percentage points less likely to drop out - 11.7 more credits accumulated - Community college enrollees (Harris et al., [2019](https://collegecareerpathways.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/sri_lldi_community_college_report_feb_2019.pdf)) - No significant overall improvements in community college on-track indicators. ### Linked Learning San Bernardino (Arshan & Bosetti, 2018) expand\_more **Study: Linked Learning San Bernardino (LLSB): Accelerating College and Career Readiness in Low-Performing Schools: An Investing in Innovation (i3) Development Grant Evaluation. Technical Report (**[**Arshan & Bosetti, 2018**](https://www.sri.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/CEi3_Technical-Report_Final.pdf)**)** **Intervention**: The study examined the effects of the Linked Learning San Bernardino (LLSB) initiative, a district-wide effort to improve college and career readiness across four low-performing high schools in the San Bernardino Unified School District. Supported by a federal grant (i3), the study evaluated both: 1. *Existing California Partnership Academies* (CPAs): State-funded career academies already operating in two of the schools. CPAs share key structural features with Linked Learning (small learning communities, integrated academic/technical coursework), though they often fall short of full certification expectations. In this study, the authors evaluated 10th-grade students (a single cohort) who enrolled in *pre-existing CPAs* in 2014-15. For this group, the researchers also administered a student survey to provide data on noncognitive outcomes. 2. *Newly developed Linked Learning Academies*: Created during the grant period 2016-17, focused on 9th graders. These were small, career-themed programs within the comprehensive high schools, equivalent to ‘pathways’ described in other Linked Learning studies. Only academies that self-assessed as a score of 5 or 6 (out of 6) on the district’s internal quality rubric by the end of 2016-17 (indicating sufficient implementation of Linked Learning practices) were included. This Linked Learning initiative included several types of career-themed pathways, including California Partnership Academies (CPAs), but CPAs were only one part of the broader districtwide reform. **Context**: - The study took place in the San Bernardino City Unified School District in California, a high-poverty, urban district. All four high schools participating in the evaluation implemented Linked Learning academies within the larger schools. Two schools operated existing CPAs, while the other two developed new academies under the grant. The study compared academy students to peers in traditional high school programs at the same or other district schools. **Research Design**: Quasi-experimental design using inverse propensity score weighting **Findings**: - Existing CPAs *Compared to students in traditional high school programs at the same schools, CPA students…* - Earned 10.8 more credits across grades 10-12 - Completed 0.70 more college preparatory requirements (A-G courses) - Reported a +0.66 SD increase in teacher support, and - Reported a +0.61 SD increase in school belonging. - Newly developed academies *Compared to students in traditional high school programs at different schools, students in newly developed academies (rated 5 or 6 on the district’s quality rubric)…* - Showed no significant impacts on any primary outcomes. The authors note that many schools in the newly developed academies were in the early stages of implementation, which may have limited the program's ability to generate significant impacts on student outcomes during the evaluation period. ### Linking Learning to Careers for Students with Disabilities (Sevak et al., 2021) expand\_more **Study: Linking Learning to Careers Demonstration: Impacts 24 Months after Enrollment (**[**Sevak et al., 2021**](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED614751)**)** **Intervention**: Participation in Linking Learning to Careers program. Linking Learning to Careers (LLC) was designed to support students with disabilities and included the following components: work-based learning experiences (job shadow, internship, or paid work), college exploration and coursework opportunities at the Community College of Vermont, team-based guidance from Division of Vocational Rehabilitation(DVR) staff, and additional support for technology and transportation. **Context**: - This study was conducted from 2016 to 2019 across all 12 DVR district offices in Vermont. It involved 803 high school students with disabilities (413 students assigned to receive LLC services, 390 students assigned to usual DVR transition services). Students were primarily in the 10th or 11th grade at enrollment, and their outcomes were tracked over 24 months. **Research Design**: Randomized Controlled Trial **Findings**: *Compared to students receiving usual DVR service, LLC participants were...* - 15.6 percentage points more likely to complete two or more Work-Based Learning Experiences (WBLE), including one paid position. - 40.7 percentage points more likely to have at least one WBLE. - 17.5 percentage points more likely to use any pre-employment transition service other than WBLEs. - 36.7 percentage points more likely to have an open DVR case. - 8.2 percentage points more likely to enroll in any postsecondary education. - 7.6 percentage points more likely to enroll in the Community College of Vermont. - No more likely statistically to have better employment outcomes. **Subgroup Findings:** *Compared to students receiving usual DVR service, LLC participants were...* - Across all subgroups (by disability status, timing of enrollment, grade level, gender, and FPRL eligibility), students were 12-20 percentage points more likely to complete at least two work-based learning experiences, including at least one paid experience. - Late enrollees (July-December 2018) were 11 percentage points more likely to have had earnings (e.g., to have been employed) within 24 months. ## Career Academies **What the Studies Tested:** - These studies evaluated whether high school Career Academies improve students' educational attainment, labor market outcomes, and college and career readiness. Career Academies are small learning communities that integrate academic courses with career-themed coursework, work-based learning, and personalized support. Evaluations included multi-site studies of urban Career Academies ([Kemple, 2004](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED484616); [Kemple & Willner, 2008](https://www.educationandemployers.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/career-academies-longterm-impacts-2008.pdf); [Page, 2012](https://clear.dol.gov/study-or-without-summaries/page-l-c-2012)), academies specializing in information technology ([Hemelt et al.,2019](https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/study/90328); [Fletcher & Dumford, 2021a](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1316407)), California Partnership Academies ([Sepanik et al., 2024](https://www.mdrc.org/sites/default/files/2024_NextGenCPA_Report_Final.pdf)), and a district-wide academy implementation aimed at school turnaround ([Kistler, et al., 2024](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.3102/01623737241289152?mi=ehikzz)). **What the Studies Found:** - The studies consistently found that Career Academies improved high school graduation rates ([Hemelt et al.,2019](https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/study/90328); [Kistler, et al., 2024](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.3102/01623737241289152?mi=ehikzz)) and increased students' completion of college preparatory coursework, particularly among economically disadvantaged and female students ([Sepanik et al., 2024](https://www.mdrc.org/sites/default/files/2024_NextGenCPA_Report_Final.pdf)). Students participating in Career Academies experienced stronger development of applied and job-related skills, higher participation in internships and other career preparation activities, and increased IT certification rates ([Hemelt et al.,2019](https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/study/90328); Fletcher & Dumford, 2021). Longer-term studies have found significant labor market benefits, notably increased earnings for young men, driven by higher hourly wages and more consistent employment. However, similar impacts were not observed for young women ([Kemple, 2004](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED484616); [Kemple & Willner, 2008](https://www.educationandemployers.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/career-academies-longterm-impacts-2008.pdf)). *Click the dropdowns below to read summaries of each study included in the overall synthesis. Unless noted otherwise, all reported effects are statistically significant at the p<.05 level. Studies are linked (see author name and publication date). When available, we link an open access version of the study*. [Explore our methodology](/rc-methodology) Open all sections Close all sections ### Career Academy: Impacts on Labor Market Outcomes and Educational Attainment (Kemple, 2004, Kemple & Willner, 2008, Page, 2012) expand\_more **Study: Career Academies: Impacts on Labor Market Outcomes and Educational Attainment (**[**Kemple, 2004**](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED484616)**,** [**Kemple & Willner, 2008**](https://www.educationandemployers.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/career-academies-longterm-impacts-2008.pdf)**,** [**Page, 2012**](https://clear.dol.gov/study-or-without-summaries/page-l-c-2012)**)** **Intervention**: Participation in high school Career Academies. Career Academies typically serve students in grade 9 or 10 through grade 12, and feature three core components: 1\) Small learning communities to provide personalized support, 2\) Integrated academic and technical coursework, and 3\) Partnerships with employers to provide work-based learning opportunities. **Context**: - The study analyzed outcomes for students who applied to one of nine urban Career Academies across the U.S. between 1993 and 1996. Applicants were randomly assigned to either the Career Academy group or a control group (non-Academy group). Findings were based on survey data collected from over 1,400 participants at two follow-up points: four years and eight years after scheduled high school graduation. - The first study ([Kemple, 2004](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED484616)) examined whether Career Academies improved students’ transitions to postsecondary education and early labor market outcomes. - The follow-up study ([Kemple & Willner, 2008](https://www.educationandemployers.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/career-academies-longterm-impacts-2008.pdf)) assessed longer-term impacts, focusing on labor market performance and transitions to adulthood (e.g., marriage, parenting). - An additional follow-up analysis by Page ([2012](https://clear.dol.gov/study-or-without-summaries/page-l-c-2012)) used the same sample from seven sites to estimate the impact of the actual duration of academy participation on long-term earnings. **Research Design**: Randomized Controlled Trial **Findings**: - *Compared to students in the control group(non-Academy group), four years after scheduled graduation, Career Academy students* ([Kemple, 2004](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED484616)): - Earned an average of $107 more per month in 2000 dollars, representing a10% higher monthly earnings than the control group, totaling over $5,000 in additional earnings over the four-year follow-up period. - Earnings gains were driven by higher hourly wages, more hours worked per week, and more months of employment. - Had no significant differences in overall high school graduation rates, postsecondary enrollment, or attainment. - *Compared to students in the control group, eight years after scheduled graduation, Career Academy students* ([Kemple & Willner, 2008](https://www.educationandemployers.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/career-academies-longterm-impacts-2008.pdf)): - Earned $2,088 more per year on average (≈$174 per month in 2006 dollars), representing 11% higher annual income than the control group, totaling more than $16,700 in additional earnings over the eight-year follow-up period. - Were 6 percentage points more likely to live independently with a partner and child. - Had no significant differences on high school completion or postsecondary credential attainment. **Subgroup Findings** - *Four years after scheduled graduation* ([Kemple, 2004](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED484616)): - Young men randomly given a seat in a Career Academy earned $212 more per month on average than young men assigned to the control group; this represents over $10,000 in added earnings over four years. - Young women randomly given a seat in a Career Academy saw no statistically significant difference in earnings relative to young women in the control group. - Students who were at high or medium risk of dropping out of high school who were given a seat at a Career Academy earned $141-$168 more per month than students similarly at risk of dropping out who were assigned to the control group. - *Eight years after scheduled graduation* ([Kemple & Willner, 2008](https://www.educationandemployers.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/career-academies-longterm-impacts-2008.pdf)): - Young men earned $3,722 more per year (≈$310 per month) than young men in the control group, totaling nearly $30,000 in additional earnings over eight years. - There were no statistically significant differences between young women assigned to a Career Academy or the control group. - Young men in the Academy group were more likely to be married (+9 points) and be custodial parents (+12 points) than young men assigned to the control group. - *Duration of participation* (Page, 2012) - Young men who fully participated in a Career Academy (enrolled for all three years) earned $588 more per month on average in 2006 dollars (about 28% higher than the control group), over the 4th to 8th years after scheduled high school graduation. ### Career Academy: Academy of Information Technology (Hemelt et al., 2019) expand\_more **Study: Building bridges to life after high school: Contemporary career academies and student outcomes (**[**Hemelt et al.,2019**](https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/study/90328)**)** **Intervention**: Participation in a Career Academy focused on Information Technology. The study evaluated Apex High School’s Academy of Information Technology (AOIT), a Career Academy certified by the National Academy Foundation (NAF). AOIT featured a four-year sequence of IT courses and electives, a paid technology internship, cohort-based grouping, and embedded soft skills training. The study examined the program’s effects on a range of student outcomes, including high school graduation, attendance, college enrollment, and credential attainment. **Context**: - The study analyzed 469 students who applied to AOIT as entering 9th graders between 2009 and 2012 in Wake County, NC. Students were randomly assigned through a lottery-based admissions process: 220 students were offered admission, and 189 of those enrolled. The remaining students were not offered admission and typically attended Apex High School’s traditional program. **Research Design**: Randomized Controlled Trial. The study reports both intent-to-treat (ITT; effects of being offered admission) and treatment-on-the-treated (TOT; effects of enrolling) estimates, since not all students offered a seat chose to enroll. **Findings**: *Compared to students in the control group, students who were offered admission to AOIT...* - Were 8 percentage points more likely to graduate high school. - Accumulated 1.43 fewer days absent during 9th grade. - Were 23 percentage points more likely to earn an IT industry certification during high school. **Subgroup Findings:** - Male students who enrolled in AOIT were more likely to enroll in college within one year of expected high school graduation compared to male students in the control group. - No statistically significant effect was found for female students. ### Career Academy: College and Career Readiness Outcomes (Fletcher & Dumford, 2021) expand\_more **Study:** **College and Career Readiness Outcomes from a High-Performing Career Academy (**[**Fletcher & Dumford, 2021a**](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1316407)**,** [**Fletcher & Dumford, 2021b**](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1325624)**)** **Intervention**: Participation in a high-performing National Academy Foundation Academy of Information Technology Career Academy. As a NAF-certified academy, the program followed a national framework that includes structured work-based learning, sequenced career and academic coursework, and formal industry partnerships to support college and career readiness. **Context**: - The study analyzed survey responses from 1,030 high school students within the same urban district in the Southeastern part of the country. Data were collected during the 2018-2019 school year using the High School Survey of Student Engagement. - The first study ([Fletcher & Dumford, 2021a](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1316407)) examined whether enrolling in this Academy improved students’ engagement in college and career preparatory activities (e.g., dual enrollment participation, receiving college preparation assistance, resume writing, job shadowing, etc.). - The second study ([Fletcher & Dumford, 2021b](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1325624)) assessed the Career Academy’s impacts on the development of 21st-century competencies, including critical thinking and communication, applied learning, and intrapersonal and interpersonal skills. **Research Design**: Propensity Score Matching **Findings**: **College and Career Preparatory Activity Participation** ([Fletcher & Dumford, 2021a](https://nocache.mdrc.org/sites/default/files/P-TECH_Dual_Enrollment.pdf?id=EJ1316407)) *Compared to similar students enrolled in a comprehensive high school, students in the IT Career Academy (Activity participation measures used 0-3 or 0-4 frequency scales):* - Participated in more career readiness activities, including resume building, mock interviews, job shadowing, and internships (average score difference: 0.42 on a 0–3 scale). - Participated in more college preparation activities, such as dual enrollment, financial aid information, college tours, and planning support (average score difference: 0.31 on a 0–4 scale). **21st-Century Skill Development** ([Fletcher & Dumford, 2021b](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1325624)) *Compared to similar students at a comprehensive high school, Career Academy students reported (Skill development measures used a 1-4 self-reported scale):* - Stronger development in their ability to apply academic knowledge to real-world contexts (average score difference: 0.21 on a 4-point scale). - Stronger development of job-related skills (average score difference: 0.41). - More frequent use of technology to gather and communicate information (average score difference: 0.47). - Stronger development of career goals (average score difference: 0.22). - Stronger development of creative ideas and solutions (average score difference: 0.12). - Lower development in writing skills compared to comprehensive students (average score difference: 0.13). - No statistically significant differences in overall critical thinking and communication or intrapersonal/interpersonal skills composite scores. ### Career Academy: School Turnaround Strategy (Kistler, H. et al., 2024) expand\_more **Study: Can Career Academies Work as a School Turnaround Strategy? (**[**Kistler, H. et al., 2024**](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.3102/01623737241289152?mi=ehikzz)**)** **Intervention**: District-wide adoption of the Career Academy model as a school improvement strategy. The Career Academy (CA) model included Freshman Academies in grade 9, a district-wide career fair, and structured experiences in grades 10–12 (for example, industry field trips in grade 10, job shadowing in grade 11, and capstone projects in grade 12). Students selected a CA theme (e.g., Health Science or STEM) and pathway (e.g., Diagnostic Services or Therapeutic Services) and completed integrated academic and CTE coursework. **Context**: - The study examined 12 high schools in a large urban district that adopted the CA model to improve graduation rates. In 2007–08, 8 high schools (early adopters) implemented Freshman Academies using a federal grant. In 2009–10, these schools and four additional schools (late adopters) began rolling out full CA programming. The rollout of the model’s four core components occurred gradually from 2009 to 2014. Schools implemented common structures such as cohort scheduling, cross-disciplinary teacher planning time, and employer engagement. Over time, the CA model became the dominant structure, with 16,000 of the district’s 20,000 high school students enrolled in an Academy; however, four selective magnet schools did not adopt it, and participation in specific academy activities was high but not universal. **Research Design**: Difference-in-Differences (school and year fixed effects) **Findings**: - Career Academy adoption led to a 3.0 to 3.2 percentage point increase in four-year high school graduation rates, with stronger effects estimated in schools with the lowest baseline graduation rates. **Subgroup findings:** - Schools with below-median pre-CA graduation rates experienced larger gains in graduation, relative to higher-performing schools. - *Early adopter schools* had improvements in - 9th-grade English I scores: +0.24 SD. - 9th-grade Algebra I scores: +0.19 SD. - *Late adopter schools* had an improvement in - 9th-grade English I scores: +0.10 SD. ### California Partnership Academies (Sepanik et al., 2024) expand\_more **Study: An Evaluation of California Partnership Academies: Charting the Path from High School to Postsecondary Enrollment (**[**Sepanik et al., 2024**](https://www.mdrc.org/sites/default/files/2024_NextGenCPA_Report_Final.pdf)**)** **Intervention**: Participation in California Partnership Academies (CPAs). CPAs are state-supported programs designed to improve college and career readiness through small learning communities (also known as a school within a school), the integration of academic and career-themed curricula, and work-based learning opportunities (e.g., internships, mentorship). This report presents early outcome findings; the evaluation team plans to follow students through eight years after graduation, with future reports expected in 2028 and 2032. **Context**: - The study included 1,125 high school students who applied to 15 oversubscribed CPAs across California between 2018 and 2020. Students were randomly assigned to either be offered admission to a CPA (treatment group) or not (control group). The analysis captured outcomes up to five years post-entry, including high school graduation, completion of A-G courses (a measure of college readiness), and first-year enrollment in postsecondary education. Most students in the sample came from lower-income backgrounds (as defined by the California Department of Education, e.g., eligibility for free/reduced-price meals, foster/homeless status, migrant program participation, direct certification, or tribal foster youth identification). The sample skewed female (about 60 percent, unusual for CTE), included a majority Hispanic population (51 percent). **Research Design**: Randomized Controlled Trial **Findings**: *Compared to similar students who applied but did not get into a CPA…* - Female students in the CPA group were 12 percentage points more likely to complete the A–G college-prep course sequence required for admission to California’s public universities. - Economically and academically disadvantaged students in the CPA group were 13 percentage points more likely to complete the A-G requirements. - No significant impact was found on high school graduation rates or college enrollment within one year of graduation. ## Career-Focused Dual Enrollment Pathways **What the Study Tested:** - These studies examined whether career-focused dual-enrollment programs, such as Tech Prep and P-TECH (Pathways in Technology Early College High School), improved outcomes for students by supporting both their career readiness and immediate transition to college or career after high school. These models combine career-themed high school coursework with structured college credit opportunities and exposure to work-based learning. **What the Study Found:** - Overall, participation in these programs improved students’ likelihood of graduating high school, credit accumulation in high school, dual enrollment participation, and likelihood of attaining an associate degree. The P-TECH model notably increased participation in dual enrollment, internship experiences, and associate degree attainment, particularly among young men ([Rosen et al., 2020](https://www.mdrc.org/sites/default/files/P-TECH_Report_2020.pdf); [Dixon & Rosen, 2022](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED618886); [Rosen et al., 2023](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED632477)). While immediate enrollment in four-year colleges decreased slightly among Tech Prep students, overall educational attainment improved ([Celini, 2006](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0272775706000318)). *Click the dropdowns below to read summaries of each study included in the overall synthesis. Unless noted otherwise, all reported effects are statistically significant at the p<.05 level. Studies are linked (see author name and publication date). When available, we link an open access version of the study*. [Explore our methodology](/rc-methodology) Open all sections Close all sections ### P-TECH 9-14 (Rosen et al., 2023) expand\_more **Study: P-TECH 9-14: Impacts on High School, College, and Career Outcomes (**[**Rosen et al., 2020**](https://www.mdrc.org/sites/default/files/P-TECH_Report_2020.pdf)**;** [**Dixon & Rosen, 2022**](https://collegecareerpathways.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/LinkedLearning-EvaluationResearch-2020.pdf)**;** [**Rosen et al., 2023**](https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED632477.pdf)**)** **Intervention**: Participation in New York City’s P-TECH 9-14 school. P-TECH 9-14 schools integrate high school and college coursework as well as career training. P-TECH 9-14 schools emphasize pathways in STEM fields. Students can earn a high school diploma, a cost-free associate’s degree, and gain exposure to work-based learning opportunities, such as mentoring and internships, during their six-year enrollment. The model includes partnerships with City University of New York (CUNY) colleges and STEM-focused employers. **Context**: - The studies analyzed outcomes for 2,085 students who applied to one of seven P-TECH 9–14 schools in New York City and were randomly assigned through the high school admissions lottery. Students entered 9th grade between 2013 and 2017 and were followed for up to seven years. Most students were academically underprepared (approximately 70 percent of the students were below proficient in eighth-grade ELA and math) and lived in lower-income communities. The evaluation drew on administrative records from the NYC Department of Education and CUNY, including state Regents exams, high school transcripts, college credit records, and degree completion. - [Rosen et al., 2020](https://www.mdrc.org/sites/default/files/P-TECH_Report_2020.pdf) examined whether P-TECH 9-14 improved early high school academic progress, including credit accumulation and Regents exam passage. - [Dixon & Rosen, 2022](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED618886) focused on dual enrollment outcomes during high school. - [Rosen et al., 2023](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED632477) assessed the longer-term impacts on work-based learning participation, postsecondary degree attainment, and cost-effectiveness. **Research Design**: Randomized Controlled Trial **Findings**: *Compared to students not offered a seat at a P-TECH 9-14 school, students who attended a P-TECH 9-14 school...* - *High School Outcomes* ([Rosen et al., 2020](https://collegecareerpathways.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/LinkedLearning-EvaluationResearch-2020.pdf)) - Earned more high school credits during each of their first three years of high school. - Were more likely to pass the New York State Regents English exam at a level qualifying them for college-level coursework (42% vs. 25% by the end of 10th grade). - No more or less likely statistically to graduate high school within 4 years, based on pooled analyses across available cohorts. - *Dual Enrollment Participation* ([Dixon & Rosen, 2022](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED618886)) - By the end of four years of high school, students in the P-TECH 9–14 group: - Were 29.7 percentage points more likely to have taken at least one dual enrollment course. - Earned 6.4 more college credits on average through dual enrollment (equivalent to about two additional college courses). - Completed more college courses aligned with their CTE pathway (e.g., 17% vs. 3% in IT; 14% vs. 7% in math; 11% vs. 1% in engineering). - *Postsecondary Attainment and Work-Based Learning* ([Rosen et al., 2023](https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED632477)) - Seven years after 9th-grade entry, students in the P-TECH 9-14 group - Were 38 percentage points more likely to have completed an internship during high school. - Were 5 percentage points more likely to complete an associate degree. - Were 26 percentage points more likely to earn any dual enrollment credit during high school. - The effects of being given a seat at a P-TECH 9-14 school differed across groups: - Young men saw the largest gains, with 13% completing an associate degree, compared to 3% in the control group. - No statistically significant impact was found on degree attainment for female students. - Rosen et al. (2023) also estimated the cost-effectiveness of the model. These findings were mixed: - 2014-15 cohort: cost-effective, with costs about $125,000 less per degree than the control. - 2015-16 cohort: not cost-effective, with costs about $611,000 more per degree than the control. *The authors note that the higher cost in the 2015-16 cohort was due to lower degree attainment, not higher operating costs.* ### Tech-Prep programs (Celini, 2006) expand\_more **Study: Smoothing the transition to college? The effect of Tech-Prep programs on educational attainment (**[**Celini, 2006**](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0272775706000318)**)** **Intervention**: Participation in Tech-Prep programs. Tech-Prep programs build partnerships between high schools and community colleges to offer transferable college credit for certain high school courses, applied technical instruction, and enhanced college and career counseling. Programs are intended to serve the “middle majority” of students by offering structured transition pathways to two-year colleges and high-skill careers. **Context**: - The study analyzed data from the 1997 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY97), focusing on a sample of 266 sibling pairs in which at least one student participated in Tech-Prep between 1997 and 2002. Students were, on average, 16 years old at the time of participation, and most students in the sample came from low- to moderate-income households. **Research Design**: Family fixed effects. The study compared Tech-Prep participants to their non-participating siblings, controlling for unobserved family-level characteristics. **Findings**: *Compared to their non-participating siblings, Tech-Prep participants were...* - More likely to complete high school (+9 percentage points). - Less likely to enroll in a four-year college immediately after high school graduation (-8 percentage points). *The author notes that this result should be interpreted with caution, as it may reflect a short-term diversion to two-year colleges rather than an adverse long-term outcome.* - Able to complete more total years of education (complete high school and attend a two-year college). ### Implementation Considerations expand\_more **Leverage virtual employer networks** Rural districts can take a strengths-based approach, start by identifying and partnering with local employers to anchor internships, mentoring, or work-based learning opportunities, then add selective virtual opportunities to broaden options. For example, [CareerVillage](https://www.careervillage.org/) is a platform where students post questions and receive answers from a network of professionals. How might your district create career-aligned opportunities despite limited local industries? What regional or state economic sectors could you align your programming with? **Address staffing and instructional capacity** Implementing career-aligned programs often requires additional staff for coordination, instruction, and student support. Districts could consider training dual-role educators (academic and CTE) or partnering with regional education service agencies and community colleges to share instructional resources and expand their offerings. In one Career Academy model ([Kistler et al., 2024](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.3102/01623737241289152?mi=ehikzz)), core academic teachers were expected to adapt instruction with career-themed content. Who in your district could support both academic and career-focused instruction? What partnerships could help address gaps in career advising or specialized teaching? **Align programming with regional workforce demands** Career programming is most effective when it reflects local labor market trends and emerging economic sectors. Districts can strengthen this alignment by engaging regional workforce boards, chambers of commerce, and local employers to co-design curricula or offer industry exposure. This approach can increase student engagement and employment outcomes. What are the top high-growth and high-wage industries in your region? How are you partnering with local employers to identify the skills and training required to succeed in local career paths? **Engage families and communities** Family and community support can be a critical mechanism for helping students identify, prepare for, and enter college and career pathways. Schools can extend the impact of career programming by actively involving families—for example, by opening career speaker events to the public or launching community job boards. These efforts help families engage in students' planning and, in some cases, may extend the impact of your district’s career connection efforts beyond graduating seniors to the broader community. What types of events could foster stronger family and community engagement? How can you highlight career paths that align with your regional or community economic strengths?