Federally Funded College Outreach Programs
Key Issue Overview
For many students, especially those from first-generation and low-income backgrounds, the journey to higher education requires continuous and comprehensive support that starts before and goes beyond the application process. Without this support, students may not have the essential knowledge, preparation, and confidence needed to pursue postsecondary education. They often face multiple challenges, including those related to academic readiness, understanding long-term planning, setting achievable goals, and addressing socio-emotional barriers to accessing college.
The federal government launched structured postsecondary access programs, including GEAR UP, Talent Search, and Upward Bound, as part of a broader set of policies aimed at expanding college access. These programs specifically target underserved populations and address gaps that are not sufficiently covered by local or state-level services. They are designed to offer consistent, holistic guidance across multiple years of schooling, though implementation often varies in consistency and reach. These programs are most effective when they provide high-quality, accessible support delivered consistently and with ongoing, personalized engagement. This ensures that students develop lasting skills and resilience, which are necessary for successful transitions to and persistence in higher education. Here, we summarize the evidence on the effectiveness of federally funded college readiness programs and strategies for enhancing their impact by increasing personalization, continuity, and alignment with students' needs.
This collection of studies examines the effect of federally funded college readiness programs such as GEAR UP, Talent Search, and Upward Bound. Some studies evaluate the impact of a specific program, while others assess the impact across multiple programs. Studies generally show positive effects on FAFSA completion and college enrollment, particularly into two-year institutions, with mixed findings related to four-year college enrollment and match quality (Constantine et al., 2006; Bowman et al., 2018). Several studies also report positive effects on high school attendance and course-taking (Leuwerke et al., 2021; Bausmith & France, 2012). There is mixed evidence on the effect of these programs on college persistence, with some studies showing gains (Kim et al., 2018) and others finding no effect or even decreased persistence (Glennie et al., 2015). Talent Search in particular shows substantial economic value, with large lifetime earnings gains relative to program costs (Bowden & Belfield, 2015). The evidence also highlights that program design matters: broader schoolwide efforts can yield more consistent and equitable outcomes than traditional targeted models (Domina, 2009)
GEAR UP
What the Studies Tested:
- The GEAR UP studies investigated whether multi-year supports for low-income students, including advising, college visits, academic assistance, and summer outreach, improved outcomes such as attendance, test scores, college readiness, and postsecondary success. Using rigorous methods across various states and school settings, some studies evaluated the overall program impact, while others tested specific services (e.g., campus visits, text reminders) to isolate what works best in improving students’ college preparation and transition.
What the Studies Found:
Overall, GEAR UP participation was associated with modest gains in college enrollment and specific academic indicators (e.g., reading and math proficiency, participation in PSAT and AP courses, school attendance), particularly for underserved students. The effects on other outcomes were mixed: several studies found positive impacts on attendance and test scores, others reported declines in college readiness benchmarks, and some studies found no effects of GEAR UP. College visits and immersive campus activities within GEAR UP programs had particularly strong effects on enrollment and persistence. Other services, including summer text nudges, had mixed or subgroup-specific results.
Click the dropdowns below to read summaries of each study included in the overall synthesis. Unless noted otherwise, all reported effects are statistically significant at the p<.05 level. Studies are linked (see author name and publication date). When available, we link an open access version of the study. Explore our methodology
Study: Improving college access at low-income high schools? The impact of GEAR UP Iowa on postsecondary enrollment and persistence (Bowman et al., 2018)
Intervention:
- Participation in the GEAR UP Iowa program. The authors compared college enrollment and persistence rates between students who participated in GEAR UP and those who did not.
Context:
- This study is based in Eastern Iowa and focuses on high school students graduating between 2010 and 2015 from the Mississippi Bend Area Education Agency. The study tracks over 17,000 students to assess the effects of GEAR UP Iowa.
Research Design: Propensity Score Matching
Findings:
Compared to non-GEAR UP students…
- On average, students who participated in GEAR UP Iowa high schools were 3 to 4 percentage points more likely to enroll in college.
- The effects on college persistence were not significant.
Subgroup Findings:
- The effects were consistent across all examined groups, with no notable differences based on socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity, gender, or special education status.
Study: Narrowing the College Readiness Gap: Assessing GEAR UP Iowa's Intermediate Impact on Underserved Students (Leuwerke et al., 2021)
Intervention: Participation in the GEAR UP Iowa program from 7th through 10th grade. The study focused on attendance and standardized test performance.
Context:
- This study took place in Iowa across 28 middle schools in 12 districts (later merging into 25 high schools). Participating schools had at least 50% of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch. The analytic sample includes 4,845 GEAR UP Iowa participants and 25,926 matched comparison students.
Research Design: Propensity score matching
Findings: Compared to non-GEAR UP participants, students participating in GEAR UP…
- Attended 2.5 more days of school.
- Had a 4.9 percentage point higher rate of reading proficiency, but no significant difference in math proficiency (proficiency defined as scoring at or above 41st percentile on the Iowa Assessment).
- Were 2.4 percentage points less likely to meet the college readiness benchmark in reading and 5.5 percentage points less likely in math (college readiness indicates meeting a more rigorous threshold associated with success in college-level coursework without remediation).
Subgroup Findings:
Compared to FRPL-eligible non-participants, FRPL-eligible GEAR UP participants…
- Attended 3.3 more days of school in 10th grade.
- Had an 8.1 percentage point higher rate of reading proficiency and a 3.9 percentage point higher rate of math proficiency (using the state’s basic proficiency benchmark, scoring at or above 41st percentile on the Iowa Assessment).
- Were 2.8 percentage points more likely to meet the collect readiness benchmark in reading, with no significant effect in math.
Study: The Impact of GEAR UP on College Readiness for Students in Low-Income Schools (Bausmith & France, 2012)
Intervention: Participation in the GEAR UP program. The study specifically focused on the program’s impact on college readiness among low-income students.
Context:
- This study evaluates 173 high-poverty high schools across the USA that participated in GEAR UP between 2003 and 2009. It compares college readiness outcomes to matched non-GEAR UP schools using national education data.
Research Design: Comparative interrupted time series design
Findings: Compared to matched non-GEAR UP schools…
- 10th Grade PSAT/NMSQT participation
- GEAR UP schools experienced increased participation by over 18 percentage points in years 1 and 2, and by more than 10 percentage points in years 3 and 4.
- SAT performance
- GEAR UP students scored higher on SAT reading and math by 2 to 3 points in later cohorts (years 2 and 3).
- AP participation
- GEAR UP increased AP participation among 11th graders in the first three years by about 2-3 percentage points.
Study: Evidence-Based Research: The Impact of the College Crusade GEAR UP Program in RI (Fogg & Harrington, 2015; Fogg et al., 2019)
Intervention: Participation in the College Crusade GEAR UP program in Rhode Island, which provided academic and social support.
Context:
- This study evaluates the College Crusade GEAR UP program in Rhode Island, with a focus on urban, low-income students. The 2015 study follows 249 students who entered sixth grade in 2007. A second cohort (2008-2009) had 206 students, and a pooled analysis of the cohorts is reported in the 2019 follow-up (Fogg et al., 2019).
Research Design: Propensity Score Matching
Findings: Compared to matched non-GEAR UP participants…
- On-time grade promotion:
- By 12th grade, GEAR UP students had an 8.8 percentage point higher rate of on-time grade promotion.
- On-time high school graduation:
- GEAR UP students were 8 percentage points more likely to graduate on time
- College enrollment:
- Among high school graduates, GEAR UP students were 14 percentage points more likely to enroll in college immediately after graduation.
A follow-up study (Fogg et al., 2019) examined longer-term effects and found:
- On-Time high school graduation:
- GEAR UP participants were 9.3 percentage points more likely to graduate from high school.
- College enrollment:
- Among high school graduates, GEAR UP students were 13.5 percentage points more likely to enroll in college immediately after graduation.
- College persistence:
- Among high school graduates, GEAR UP students were 10.5 percentage points more likely to persist in college from year 1 to year 2.
Study: Post-secondary Outcomes and the Impacts of GEAR UP North Carolina from 2005 to 2012 (Fuller, 2018)
Intervention: Participation in GEAR UP North Carolina (2005-2012), which provided college visits, advising, and application support.
Context:
- This study examined the effect of the GEAR UP NC grant, which provided service from 2005 to 2012. The sample includes four student cohorts who entered 7th grade between 2005-06 and 2008-09, and they were tracked from middle school to six years post-high school.
- The study employed two comparison groups: one comprised all NC students attending non-GEAR UP schools in the same years and grades, and the other consisted of only schools with similar baselines in terms of student demographics and socioeconomic status.
Research Design: Difference-in-differences
Findings: Compared to non-GEAR UP students…
- This study found mixed results on whether GEAR UP affected college enrollment, retention, and on-time graduation. The model with only student demographic controls found positive effects on college enrollment and graduation, while the model that controlled for 8th-grade test scores found null effects.
- There is some evidence that GEAR UP exposure may have a small negative effect on graduating from a two-year college within six years of high school graduation.
Study: Study of College Transition Messaging in GEAR UP: Impacts on Enrolling and Staying in College (Linkow et al., 2021) (also in Navigating Steps to College Enrollment)
Intervention: Students received text messages during the summer following high school graduation with reminders of key milestones, along with the offer of additional assistance from an advisor if needed. The texts also included positive/growth mindset messages. Students received 37 text messages that were tailored based on their intended college.
Context:
- The study sample was college-intending class of 2016 and 2017 graduates from high-need high schools that had active GEAR UP programs. The study sample had a large proportion of would-be first-generation college students (70%), and about 50% of the sample was Hispanic.
- Since this study was embedded within active GEAR UP programs, students in the study sample had better access to college information and support than many other low-income students. Many of the students had already met with college advisers, completed financial aid applications, and had a solid understanding of the steps needed for college enrollment at the time of high school graduation.
- Students in the non-messaged group also had access to GEAR UP advisors and may have received some outreach over the summer (though not the systematic text messages).
Research Design: Randomized Controlled Trial
Findings:
- The intervention had no effect on fall college enrollment.
- The authors suggest that the lack of effect may be in part due to GEAR UP students receiving intensive college advising and preparation during high school, which gave them better access to college information and support than many other low-income students.
Subgroup Findings:
- Rurality
- For rural high schools, the intervention led to a positive impact on immediate college enrollment and continuous enrollment into the second fall.
- For non-rural high schools, the intervention had a negative impact on FAFSA renewal.
- Gender
- For male students, the intervention had a positive impact on continuous enrollment into the second year.
- For female students, the intervention had a negative impact on FAFSA renewal.
- School-level FAFSA completion rates
- The intervention had a negative impact on continuous enrollment in high schools with lower-than-average FAFSA completion rates.
Study:Promoting Educational Success: Which GEAR UP Services Lead to Postsecondary Enrollment and Persistence? (Kim et al., 2018) (also in the College and Career Exploration)
Intervention: Effects of specific GEAR UP Iowa services on students’ postsecondary enrollment and persistence. Each analysis compared students who participated in a particular service with matched students who did not participate in that same service.
In this study, GEAR UP services were examined at two levels:
- General categories(for example, academic enhancement, which combines tutoring and academic presentations). For these comparisons, the reference group consisted of students who did not participate in any service within that category.
- Specific services(for example, one-on-one tutoring, ACT/SAT test preparation, college campus activities). For these comparisons, the reference group consisted of students who did not participate in that specific service, though they may have participated in other GEAR UP services.
Context:
- The sample included 682 students who started seventh grade in a GEAR UP Iowa school district during the 2008-09 academic year. These students attended 19 high schools within the Mississippi Bend Area Education Agency (MBAEA), which includes a mix of city, suburb, town, and rural schools. This region serves a high proportion of students of color and students eligible for free and reduced-price lunch.
Research Design: Propensity Score Matching
Findings: Results differed depending on whether services were analyzed as general categories or specific services. Some broad categories showed no overall effects, but individual services within those categories had significant positive impacts.
Compared to matched GEAR UP students who did not participate in each specific service…
- General Categories
- College Visits
- 9.4 percentage points higher college enrollment within one year of HS graduation (8.5 percentage points increase within two years of HS graduation).
- 12.6 percentage points higher in college persistence to a second year (among college enrollees).
- Financial Aid Counseling
- 17.3 percentage points higher enrollment within one year of HS graduation (16.9 percentage points higher enrollment within two years).
- No significant effect on persistence.
- No significant effects for academic enhancement or academic and career counseling.
- College Visits
- Specific Services
- Enhanced college visit activities (e.g., shadowing students, attending events)
- 7.6 percentage points higher college enrollment within one year of HS graduation.
- 10.2 percentage points higher college persistence to a second year (among college enrollees).
- Academic assistance (tutoring outside of school hours)
- 12.2 percentage points higher enrollment within one year of high school graduation.
- 12.2 percentage points higher enrollment within two years of high school graduation.
- I have a Plan Iowa (online career/academic planning)
- 16.6 percentage points higher enrollment within one year of high school graduation.
- ACT/SAT Test preparation
- 11.8 percentage points higher enrollment within one year of high school graduation.
- 12.0 percentage points higher enrollment within two years of high school graduation.
- No significant effects for the four-year graduation plan, motivational speaker, or college application assistance.
- Enhanced college visit activities (e.g., shadowing students, attending events)
Talent Search
What the Studies Tested:
- These studies examined whether the Talent Search program enhances students’ educational outcomes and whether it is cost-effective. Talent Search provides low-income, first-generation high school students with information and assistance on high school course planning, college applications, and financial aid. One study evaluated student-level impacts on high school completion, financial aid application, and postsecondary enrollment across three states (Constantine et al., 2006), while the other examined whether the program delivered long-term economic benefits that outweigh its costs (Bowden & Belfield, 2015)
What the Studies Found:
- Talent Search participation increased the likelihood of applying for financial aid, enrolling in college, and, in some states, completing high school. Building on these results, Bowden & Belfield (2015) demonstrated that the program generated substantial lifetime economic benefits, with benefit-cost ratios exceeding 5:1, although cost-effectiveness varied across sites.
Click the dropdowns below to read summaries of each study included in the overall synthesis. Unless noted otherwise, all reported effects are statistically significant at the p<.05 level. Studies are linked (see author name and publication date). When available, we link an open access version of the study. Explore our methodology
Study: A study of the effect of the Talent Search program on secondary and postsecondary outcomes in Florida, Indiana, and Texas: Final report from phase II of the national evaluation (Constantine et al., 2006)
Intervention: Participation in the Talent Search program. Talent Search provided students with information on high school courses, financial aid, and college applications and helped students with completing applications, accessing scholarships, and learning about college options.
Context:
This study examined the effect of Talent Search in Florida, Indiana, and Texas on postsecondary outcomes, focusing on ninth-grade students in the 1995–96 school year. The study included data from at least 60% of Talent Search programs in those states.
Research Design: Propensity Score Matching
Findings: Across all three states, Talent Search participants showed consistently better outcomes than matched non-participants.
- Financial Aid Applications
- Florida: 17 percentage point increase in financial aid application rates (42% for participants vs. 25% for non-participants)
- Texas: 29 percentage point increase (59% vs. 31%)
- Indiana: 14 percentage point increase (56% vs. 42%)
- Postsecondary Enrollment
- Florida: 14 percentage point increase (51% vs. 37%)
- Texas: 18 percentage point increase (51% vs. 33%)
- Indiana: 6 percentage point increase (51% vs. 45%)
- Enrollment in a two-year institution
- Florida: 14 percentage point increase (39% vs. 29%)
- Texas: 18 percentage point increase (30% vs. 18%)
- Indiana: 6 percentage point increase (16% vs. 13%)
- Enrollment in a four-year institution
- Florida: 14 percentage point increase (14% vs. 9%)
- Texas: 18 percentage point increase (21% vs. 14%)
- Indiana: 6 percentage point increase (35% vs. 32%)
- High school completion:
- Texas: 9 percentage point increase (86% vs. 77%)
Florida: 14 percentage point increase (84% vs. 70%)
The authors cautioned that they are less confident that the high school completion outcomes can be attributed to participation in Talent Search.
Study: Evaluating the Talent Search TRIO Program: A Benefit-Cost Analysis and Cost-Effectiveness Analysis (Bowden & Belfield, 2015)
Intervention: Participation in the Talent Search program in Texas and Florida. This study examined the economic impact of the Talent Search program, focusing on its effectiveness in improving high school graduation and college enrollment outcomes. It aimed to evaluate whether the benefits of the program outweighed its costs in terms of improved educational attainment and long-term income.
Context:
This study examined the economic efficiency of nine Talent Search project sites—six in Texas and three in Florida— that were part of the 2006 program evaluation (Constantine et al., 2006). Programs were hosted by colleges and had been operating for over 15 years. Each site had the flexibility to design the program to meet the needs of the target population; thus, grades served and the number of students varied depending on the site. The sample included 6,186 students, 70% of whom were minorities and 75% whom were low-income, first-generation students.
Research Design: Propensity Score Matching (Benefit-cost and cost-effectiveness analysis)
Findings:
Compared to matched non-participants from Constantine et al. (2006), students in Talent Search were estimated to result in...
- 590 additional high school graduates
- 768 additional college enrollees
These outcomes translated into economic benefits (in 2010 dollars, present value at age 18):
- $223,900 in lifetime net earnings per additional high school graduate
- $178,600 in lifetime net earnings per additional college enrollee
- Benefit-cost ratios: 5.16 (high school completion) and 5.36 (college enrollment)
In cost-effectiveness terms, Talent Search was estimated to produce:
- An additional high school graduate at a cost of $43,440
- An additional college enrollee at a cost of $33,380
However, considerable site-level variations were observed, ranging from negative returns to highly cost-effective outcomes.
Upward Bound
What the Study Tested:
- These studies evaluated the impact of Upward Bound, a college access program for low-income, first-generation high school students, using data from randomized controlled trial. Some studies assessed the effects of regular Upward Bound services, while others tested the impact of Find the Fit, an enhancement service designed to improve college match by adding personalized tools, text/email nudges, and advisor training to existing Upward Bound program.
What the Study Found:
- The initial evaluation of Upward Bound showed limited overall impacts on enrollment and degree attainment overall, but some effects for certain student populations, particularly those with low academic expectations or preparation. Following the initial evaluation and in light of potential methodological flaws in the first analysis, subsequent re-analysis of the randomized controlled trial suggested the program did have positive effects on college enrollment and completion for students on average. The Find the Fit enhancement increased applications to selective colleges and FAFSA completion for underserved students, but had no effect
son undermatching or long-term college persistence.
Click the dropdowns below to read summaries of each study included in the overall synthesis. Unless noted otherwise, all reported effects are statistically significant at the p<.05 level. Studies are linked (see author name and publication date). When available, we link an open access version of the study. Explore our methodology
Study: The Impacts of Regular Upward Bound: Results from the Third Follow-Up Data Collection (Myers et al., 2004)
Intervention: Participation in Upward Bound. The study examines the impacts of the Upward Bound (UB) program, which offers academic support, counseling, and enrichment activities to low-income, first-generation high school students. The program is designed to help these students prepare for and succeed in higher education, primarily through after-school tutoring, summer academic programs, and college preparation resources.
Context:
The study was part of the ongoing national evaluation of Upward Bound and focused on the results of the third follow-up data collection, which was conducted through 2001. The sample included 67 Upward Bound projects nationwide, representing a mix of urban and rural settings. The authors compared approximately 1,500 Upward Bound participants to a control group of approximately 1,300 non-participants.
Research Design: Randomized Controlled Trial
Findings: Compared to non-participants, Upward Bound participants…
- High School Outcomes:
- Increased average math credits completed by 0.2. There were no effects on number of credits in other subjects
- Had no effect on course grades
- Had no effect on HS graduation rate
- College Outcomes:
- Had no effect on whether students enrolled in college
- Had no effect on total college credits earned.
Subgroup Findings
- Upward Bound had a stronger impact on students with lower educational expectations, defined as those who expected to complete less than a bachelor’s degree at baseline.
- Participating in Upward Bound more than doubled the percentage of students who attended four-year colleges, increasing enrollment from 18% to 38%.
- Upward Bound participation also doubled the number of college credits they earned, from 11 to 22 credits.
- During high school, Upward Bound participants earned, on average, 2.0 more credits in core subjects, including 0.5 additional credits in math and 0.3 credits in foreign languages.
Study: The Impacts of Regular Upward Bound on Postsecondary Outcomes Seven to Nine Years after Scheduled High School Graduation (Seftor et al., 2009)
Intervention: Participation in Upward Bound. The study examined the long-term impacts of the Upward Bound and Upward Bound Math and Science programs, which provided comprehensive support services—including academic assistance and college guidance—to encourage high school students to pursue higher education.
Context:
This study drew on data from a national evaluation of the Upward Bound program conducted by Mathematica Policy Research for the U.S. Department of Education. As the final report in the Upward Bound program evaluation series, this study followed students who had access to Upward Bound programs between 1992 and 1999, tracking their postsecondary outcomes for seven to nine years (data collected between 2003 and 2004) after their scheduled high school graduation.
Research Design: Randomized Controlled Trial
Findings:
- Upward Bound had no statistically significant effect on overall postsecondary enrollment, the type or selectivity of institution attended, financial aid applications, or bachelor’s or associate degree attainment.
- There was a slight increase in certificates or licenses from a vocational school (9% of the treatment group vs. 4% of the control group)
- These results were consistent with earlier findings (Myers et al., 2004), showing limited or no overall impact.
Subgroup Findings
Upward Bound showed some substantial benefits for certain subgroups:
- Students who applied in 10th grade or later
- 3.2 percentage point increase in any postsecondary enrollment
- 6.3 percentage point increase in certificate attainment
- Students with lower educational expectations
- 6.4 percentage point increase in vocational enrollment
- 12.0 percentage point increase in earning any degree, certificate, or license
- Students who took math below Algebra in 9th grade
- 6.5 percentage point increase in any postsecondary enrollment
- 7.8 percentage point increase in Pell Grant receipt
- Students with GPA above 2.5 in 9th grade
- 8.3 percentage point increase in 4-year college attendance
- 6.4 percentage point increase in Pell Grant receipt
- 6.5 percentage point increase in earning any degree, certificate, or license
Study: Setting the Record Straight: Strong Positive Impacts Found from the National Evaluation of Upward Bound Re-Analysis Documents Significant Positive Impacts Masked by Errors in Flawed Contractor Reports (Calahan & Goodwin, 2014)
Intervention: Participation in Upward Bound. The study re-analyzes data from the National Evaluation of Upward Bound conducted by Mathematica Policy Research (Myers et al., 2004, Seftor et al., 2009), which had previously found mixed or negative results regarding the program's impact.
Context:
The authors challenged earlier findings by identifying errors in the authors’ reports that masked the program's actual positive effects. The re-analysis focused on correcting these errors and reevaluating the impacts of Upward Bound on participants. The study is based on students who were exposed to Upward Bound in the 1990s.
Research Design: Randomized Controlled Trial
Findings:
- Upward Bound had positive impacts on key educational outcomes that had previously been reported as null or inconsistent.
- Upward Bound participants were 7.8 percentage points more likely to enroll in a four-year college compared to the non-participating students.
- Upward Bound participants were 4-6 percentage points more likely to earn an associate or bachelor’s degree compared to non-participating students.
Study: Does Upward Bound Have an Effect on Student Educational Outcomes? A Reanalysis of the Horizons Randomized Controlled Trial Study (Nathan, 2013)
Intervention: Participation in Upward Bound. The study re-analyzes data from the National Evaluation of Upward Bound conducted by Mathematica Policy Research (Myers et al., 2004, Seftor et al., 2009), which had previously found mixed or negative results regarding the program's impact.
Context:
This study reanalyzed data from the original Upward Bound randomized controlled trial—based on students who were exposed to the program in the 1990s—using updated methods and a deeper focus on subgroup differences. It especially focused on students who were technically ineligible for Upward Bound under federal guidelines but were still randomly assigned to treatment and control groups. By examining outcomes for this subgroup, the study reveals stronger program effects that were not highlighted in the original evaluation.
Research Design: Randomized Controlled Trial
Findings:
- Upward Bound had a positive impact on student outcomes:
- Increased high school graduation rates by 4.5 percentage points.
- Boosted postsecondary enrollment by 2.9 percentage points.
- Raised postsecondary completion rates by 4.6 percentage points.
Subgroup Findings: Students who would generally be ineligible for UB but were still randomized into the treatment group for this study experienced positive effects on completion rates, which were 8.4 percentage points higher than those of typically eligible treatment group students.
Study: Study of Enhanced College Advising in Upward Bound: Impacts on Steps toward College (Martinez et al., 2018)
Intervention: Participation in Find the Fit, a college advising enhancement integrated into existing Upward Bound services designed to reduce college undermatching. These advanced services included personalized college planning folders, semi-customized text and email reminders for application and financial aid, and live training webinars.
Context:
The study examined approximately 4,500 rising high school seniors across 194 Upward Bound programs nationwide who participated during the 2015-16 school year. Students in the treatment group received standard Upward Bound services and additional college advising enhancements (i.e., Find the Fit) while control group students received regular Upward Bound programming without these enhancements.
The sample primarily consists of low-income and first-generation college students, with a focus on students from rural schools. Martinez et al. (2018) focused on college application behaviors and FAFSA engagement during students’ senior year. Linkow et al. (2021) extended outcomes using administrative data to college enrollment, selectivity, undermatching, net price, and persistence through three years after high school.
Research Design: Randomized Controlled Trial
Findings: Compared to students in regular Upward Bound, students in projects that implemented Find the Fit…
Senior Year Outcomes (Martinez et al., 2018)
- Were 9 percentage points more likely to apply to four or more colleges.
- Were 10 percentage points more likely to apply to colleges classified as "very competitive."
- Showed no difference in how much students reported valuing academic quality when choosing a college.
- Showed no difference in FAFSA completion rates among the full sample.
Postsecondary outcomes through 3 years post-HS (Linkow et al., 2021)
- Were 3 percentage points more likely to attend “very competitive” colleges immediately after high school, and this difference persisted three years later.
- Were equally likely to undermatch, with about 40% of students in both groups enrolling in colleges less selective than their academic qualifications suggested.
- Faced similar net college costs, averaging about $10,000 for low-income students in both groups.
Subgroup Findings:
- Students with lower academic preparation (lowest and middle quartiles of entrance exam scores) saw large and statistically significant increases in both the number and selectivity of colleges applied to, as well as FAFSA completion rates.
- Black and Hispanic students applied to more colleges, especially more selective ones, and Black students saw the largest gains in FAFSA completion (+9.9 percentage points).
- Female students benefited across nearly all outcomes, including the number of applications, the selectivity of colleges to which they applied, and FAFSA completion, while male students saw more limited gains.
- Rural students showed improvements in applying to four or more colleges and to more selective schools.
- Upward Bound projects hosted by two-year colleges or nontraditional institutions showed greater improvements in application behaviors compared to those at traditional four-year colleges.
Cross-Program Studies of College Access Interventions
What the Study Tested:
- Unlike studies focused on a single program, these studies examined how different models of college access programming compare in their effectiveness—either across program types or delivery strategies. They examined whether students benefit more from certain designs (e.g., near-peer advising vs. traditional federal programs), and whether broad, schoolwide outreach performs better than efforts targeting a subset of students. These studies are unique in that they don’t isolate the effects of one branded program, but instead offer insights into which types of program design and delivery matter most, and for whom.
What the Study Found:
- These comparative studies revealed that broad schoolwide efforts (Domina, 2009) were often more effective than the traditional targeted model, where a small, selected group of students receives intensive outreach services (e.g., advising, tutoring, mentoring). Schoolwide approaches, by contrast, made resources available to all students and were beneficial for underserved students who may not actively seek out support. Glennie et al. (2015) found that while federal programs improved college planning behaviors, they did not consistently promote long-term persistence. Taken together, these findings suggest that both the design of outreach efforts (schoolwide vs. targeted) and the outcomes they prioritize (short-term planning vs. long-term persistence) are critical for understanding their impact.
Click the dropdowns below to read summaries of each study included in the overall synthesis. Unless noted otherwise, all reported effects are statistically significant at the p<.05 level. Studies are linked (see author name and publication date). When available, we link an open access version of the study. Explore our methodology
Study: What Works in College Outreach: Assessing Targeted and Schoolwide Interventions for Disadvantaged Students (Domina, 2009)
Intervention: This study compares two college outreach models of federally funded college outreach models:
- Traditional targeted outreach, which served a selected group of students with intensive supports (examples include Talent Search, Upward Bound, and Posse).
- Schoolwide outreach, which offered lighter-touch support to all students (examples include GEAR UP, AVID, and I Have a Dream).
Context:
The study used the nationally representative Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS), analyzing data on over 16,000 tenth graders in 750 public high schools. The sample was primarily low-income, first-generation, and minority students. Because students experienced outreach in different ways, either through direct participation or schoolwide exposure, the study investigates both individual and school-level effects.
Research Design: Propensity Score Matching
Findings:
- Targeted Outreach: Compared to matched non-participants, participants...
- No statistically significant effects on homework, GPA, advanced course taking, math test scores, or enrollment.
- Schoolwide Outreach: Compared to matched schools without outreach, students in schoolwide outreach schools...
- were 9 percentage points more likely to take precalculus or calculus
- scored modestly higher (1.9 points) on 12th-grade math tests.
Subgroup Findings:
- Schoolwide Outreach: Students not engaged in college search by 10th grade were 12.9 percentage points more likely to take precalculus or calculus and scored 2.7 points higher on 12th-grade math tests.
Study: The Influence of Precollege Access Programs on Postsecondary Enrollment and Persistence (Glennie et al., 2015)
Intervention: Participation in any of the precollege access programs such as GEAR UP, Upward Bound, or Talent Search. The study assessed the collective effect of participation in any one of these programs rather than separating outcomes for each program type.
Context:
This study used the nationally representative Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), which began tracking students who were in 9th grade in 2002 and followed them into postsecondary years. The analytic sample included between 185 and 401 program participants (depending on the outcome measured) and up to 9,405 matched non-participants. Since the analysis captured the collective effect of participation in any one of these programs, the composition of both treatment and control groups varied across models and outcomes.
Research Design: Propensity Score Matching
Findings: Compared to matched non-participants, students who participated in at least one of the precollege access programs were…
- Less academically prepared in high school, with lower 12th grade math scores (-2 points), fewer AP/IB credits (-0.2), and lower SAT/ACT scores (-25 points).
- More likely to seek information about college (+3 percentage points), apply to college (+8 percentage points), and receive financial aid (+7 percentage points).
- Equally likely to enroll in college, attend a 4-year school, or enroll full-time.
- Less likely to persist in college for 2 years. The authors note that participants may have been more informed but less academically prepared, making it harder to sustain performance in college.
Provide support early and sustain over time
Several studies show that providing support as early as middle school can improve outcomes, particularly when services are developmental and long-term. To build this continuity, districts might create a multi-year roadmap that outlines key advising and preparation touchpoints from middle to high school. Who in your district can maintain consistent relationships with students across grade levels? What partnerships or staffing models could help ensure continuity? How can these supports be embedded within students’ academic experience?
Strengthen cross-sector collaboration for continuity
Districts can build partnerships with local colleges, community-based organizations, and state education agencies to extend advising, bridge programs, and offer summer support. How can your district ensure that college advising continues through the summer after high school graduation? What local partners could help sustain student engagement during this transition?
Personalized supports based on readiness and needs
Programs are more effective when they differentiate services based on students’ academic preparation, motivation, and college knowledge. Using diagnostic tools or advising protocols can help tailor support—offering intensive advising for students who need it most, while providing lighter-touch nudges for those on track. What data can help to identify students who might benefit from different types of support? How will you ensure disengaged or overlooked students have access to supports?
Make college and career planning tangible
Some studies highlighted that students benefit most when college planning includes hands-on, reflective, and personalized experiences (Kim et al., 2018; Constantine et al., 2006). Incorporate real-world planning tools and activities, like FAFSA completion nights, resume-building workshops, mock admissions panels, or college visits, to make planning more meaningful and actionable. How can students’ academic and extracurricular activities connect clearly to their long-term plans? What planning tools or experiences will help students connect their current efforts to postsecondary plans?