Mentoring and Counseling
Key Issue Overview
For many high school students, figuring out their post-graduation goals and how to reach them can feel complicated and overwhelming. High school counselors play a crucial role in helping students explore their options and take the necessary steps during high school to prepare for success in whichever path they plan to pursue. However, many counselors manage caseloads exceeding the recommended student-to-counselor ratio of 250:1 (ASCA, 2023). In rural schools, the average student-to-counselor or psychologist ratio is 310:1 (Why Rural Matters, 2023). They also juggle a wide range of responsibilities, with college and career guidance representing only a small part of their training and daily job functions.
Here, we examine causal evidence on the role of counselors and informal mentors in shaping and supporting students’ successful transitions into postsecondary pathways. We also review the effects of interventions that strengthen the advising capacity by placing dedicated college and career advisors or coaches in high schools, supplementing the support that school counselors provide.
This collection of studies examines the effect of providing high school students with mentoring and counseling opportunities to improve high school and post-high school outcomes. The interventions and staffing practices studied include improving student-to-counselor ratios, the impact of more effective counselors, having an informal mentor during high school, and adding additional counseling capacity through partnerships with college and other nonprofits. Overall, multiple studies suggest that providing this type of mentoring and counseling support leads to improvement across a range of outcomes, including higher SAT participation, increased HS GPAs, and increased college enrollment rates. Taken together, these findings highlight the importance of ensuring that students have access to meaningful, sustained guidance and support throughout high school. Strengthening these support systems can help equip students to successfully identify and pursue their intended post-high school pathways.
Counseling Support
What the Studies Tested:
- These studies tested the effect of providing high school students with college counseling and advising support to improve postsecondary outcomes. One study tested the effect of adding a school counselor in schools where student-to-counselor ratios exceeded their state’s recommended level (Hurwitz & Howell, 2014), another one analyzed the impact of individual counselor effectiveness using Massachusetts public school data (Mulhern, 2023), and two examined programs that placed dedicated college and career counselor/coaches in high schools (Clayton & Worsham, 2024; Moore et al., 2015).
What the Studies Found:
- Enhancing students’ access to college and career counseling and advising—whether through lower caseloads, more effective counseling, or partnerships that place dedicated college and career counselors in high schools—led to improvements in a range of high school and postsecondary outcomes (e.g., SAT participation, non-cognitive outcomes, HS graduation, college enrollment).
- Adding a counselor in high schools that exceeded the student-to-counselor ratio raised four-year college enrollment by 10 percentage points (Hurwitz & Howell, 2014) and having students assigned to a counselor who was 1 standard deviation more effective led to a 2-2.5 percentage point increase in high school graduation and college enrollment rates (with larger impacts among low-income students and students with lower academic performance; Mulhern, 2023).
Increasing capacity by placing adults without counseling credentials may also improve student outcomes. Clayton & Worsham (2024) found that placing recent high school graduates in underserved North Carolina high schoolers to serve as college advisors led to a 2.5 percentage point increase in SAT participation, but had no effect on enrollment in advanced college prep courses. Moore et al. (2015) found that placing graduate students in Arkansas high schools to provide college and career coaching to underrepresented and disadvantaged high school students had no effect on high school academic outcomes (GPA, credits earned, ACT scores), but led to an increase in non-cognitive outcomes (i.e., self-efficacy, future-mindedness, external accountability) and postsecondary outcomes (i.e., college enrollment, college knowledge). Moore et al. found stronger effects in the program’s second year, highlighting the importance of allowing time for program development and refinement.
Click the dropdowns below to read summaries of each study included in the overall synthesis. Unless noted otherwise, all reported effects are statistically significant at the p<.05 level. Studies are linked (see author name and publication date). When available, we link an open access version of the study. Explore our methodology
Study: Preparing Students for Postsecondary Success: The Effects of College Advising on College Readiness (Clayton & Worsham, 2024)
Intervention: The Carolina College Advising Corps (CCAC). CCAC trains and places recent college graduates in underserved North Carolina high schools to serve as college advisors and assist with college readiness activities such as college search, applications, course selection, test preparation, and financial aid.
- The program serves as a supplemental resource alongside school counselors and aims to increase college participation among low-income, first-generation, and underrepresented students.
Context:
- The study was conducted in 36 public high schools in North Carolina from 2007 to 2012, focusing on schools serving low-income, first-generation, and underrepresented students.
- CCAC advisers served in partner schools for an average of 2.4 years.
Research Design: Difference-in-differences
Findings: Having access to a CCAC adviser…
- Increased SAT participation by 2.5 percentage points.
- Decreased average SAT score by 6.5 points.
- This may be due to more students taking the test who might not have otherwise
- Had no effect on enrollment in advanced college preparatory courses (e.g., AP, IB, university level courses)
Study: Estimating Causal Impacts of School Counselors With Regression Discontinuity Designs (Hurwitz & Howell, 2014)
Intervention: Additional high school counselor. This intervention added school counselors in high schools where student enrollment exceeded recommended student-to-counselor ratios, with the goal of increasing 4-year college enrollment rates.
Context: The study analyzed data from public high schools in 12 U.S. states that have mandated or recommended maximum student-to-counselor ratios. It examined college-going outcomes for graduating seniors in the following classes: 2000, 2004, 2008.
- The states included in this study are: Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, Maine, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Utah, and Vermont. The maximum student-to-counselor ratios during the period studied varied widely between states and can be found in Table 1 of the paper.
Research Design: Regression discontinuity design
Findings
- Adding an additional counselor led to a 10-percentage point increase in four-year college enrollment.
Study: Second Year Results from a Random Assignment College Access and Career Coaching Program (Razor C.O.A.C.H: Creating Opportunities for Arkansans’ Career Hopes) (Moore et al., 2015)
Intervention: This study evaluated the Razor C.O.A.C.H. (Creating Opportunities for Arkansans’ Career Hopes) program, which provided individualized college and career coaching to underrepresented and disadvantaged high school students in Arkansas.
- Graduate students from the University of Arkansas served as part-time coaches, meeting weekly with students on their high school campuses to support academic behaviors, college and career planning, and non-cognitive skills.
Context:
- The program was implemented in 16 public high schools across Northwest Arkansas. The program targeted students in grade 10-12, though the majority were in grades 11 and 12. The evaluation followed two cohorts between 2012 and 2014 and included a total of 1,027 students.
- Cohort 1 received full coaching during 2012–13 and follow-up “booster” sessions in 2013–14, while Cohort 2 received full coaching support during 2013–14.
- The treatment group schools were a mix of rural, suburban, and urban districts.
Research Design: Randomized Controlled Rrial
Findings
- Overall, the second year of the program had more positive impacts on students than the first year of the program. The authors attribute this to the steep learning curve experienced by program staff and coaches in the first year, as well as the program being more fully developed in the second year.
Being assigned a Razor Coach led to…
- HS Academic Outcomes:
- No effect on GPA, credits earned, or ACT score for either cohort
- Non-Cognitive Outcomes:
- 7.7 percentage point increase in academic self-efficacy for cohort 2 (no effect for cohort 1)
- 10.3 percentage point increase in future-mindedness for cohort 2 (no effect for cohort 1)
- Large increase in external accountability for both cohorts (38 percentage points for cohort 1, 52 percentage points for cohort 2)
- Large increase in external support constructs for both cohorts, general and college and career related (27-60 percentage points)
- No effects on academic responsibility or grit for either cohort
- Postsecondary Outcomes:
- 8 percentage point increase in college enrollment for cohort 2 (no effect for cohort 1)
- No effect on self-reported FAFSA completion
- Increased scores on college and career planning survey items (e.g., knowledge of steps in college applications, belief they would attend college, self-reported completion of 1+ steps towards college admission)
- All effects were statistically significant for cohort 2. In year 1, only the effect on college awareness/preparation was statistically significant.
Subgroup Findings
- When comparing high-implementation schools and low-implementation schools, results were stronger in schools that had a high-level of implementation fidelity.
Study: Beyond Teachers: Estimating Individual School Counselors' Effects on Educational Attainment (Mulhern, 2023)
Intervention: Counselor effectiveness. This study examined the impact of individual school counselors on students’ educational outcomes.
- Students were assigned to counselors based on alphabetic rules that varied across schools and years, which allowed the author to measure the causal impact of individual school counselors on students’ outcomes.
Context:
- The study focused on public high school students in Massachusetts, using data collected between 2008 and 2019.
- The treatment group schools were a mix of rural, suburban, and urban districts.
Research Design: Regression Discontinuity Design
Findings
- Postsecondary Outcomes:
- Students assigned to a counselor who was 1 standard deviation more effective were:
- 2.0-2.4 percentage points more likely to graduate high school
- 2.0-2.5 percentage points more likely to attend college
- Also more likely to persist in college and earn a degree, with smaller but significant gains.
- Students assigned to a counselor who was 1 standard deviation more effective were:
- High School Outcomes:
- Counselors also influenced students’ high school experiences, including reducing suspensions, increasing AP and SAT participation, and supporting stronger course selection and college planning.
- Potential Mechanisms:
- The most meaningful impact came from counselors providing personalized guidance and access to information, not from improving short-term test scores or skills.
- While smaller caseloads were associated with better student outcomes, the study also emphasized the importance of providing current counselors with the support they need to maximize their effectiveness.
Subgroup Findings
- Academic Achievement: Students with lower academic achievement saw the greatest benefit from effective counselors
- A 1 standard deviation increase in counselor effectiveness was associated with a 3.2 percentage point increase in high school graduation and 2.5 percentage points increase in college attendance
- Family Income: Low-income students also benefitted more than their higher-income peers
- Counselor effectiveness increased high school graduation by 3.1 percentage points for low-income students, compared to 1.4 points for higher-income students
- School Rurality: The effects were smaller in rural schools compared to urban and suburban schools, though still positive and statistically significant.
- Race: Difference by race were small and not statistically significant.
Informal Mentoring
What the Study Tested:
- One study (Kraft et al., 2023) measured the effect of informal mentoring that naturally occurs between students and school staff such as teachers, counselors, and coaches. This study used data from a nationally representative sample of over 20,000 students.
What the Study Found:
- Students with school-based informal mentors during high school had better average high school academic performance (+.22 in GPA, -2.3 percentage points in course failures, +0.2 in course credits earned) and college outcomes (+9.4 percentage points in college attendance, +2/3 year more educational attainment). The positive effects on college attendance were larger for low-income students (+16.7 percentage points).
Click the dropdowns below to read summaries of each study included in the overall synthesis. Unless noted otherwise, all reported effects are statistically significant at the p<.05 level. Studies are linked (see author name and publication date). When available, we link an open access version of the study. Explore our methodology
Study: How Informal Mentoring by Teachers, Counselors, and Coaches Supports Students' Long-Run Academic Success (Kraft et al., 2023)
This study was published as " How Informal Mentoring by Teachers, Counselors, and Coaches Supports Students' Long-Run Academic Success” in 2023 but is behind a paywall.
Intervention: Informal Mentoring. The study explored the effect of informal mentoring that naturally occurs between students and school staff such as teachers, counselors, and coaches. These relationships extend beyond classroom interactions and can include personal support, guidance, or encouragement that helps students navigate academic and life challenges.
Context:
- This study used data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, a nationally representative sample of over 20,000 students who were in grades 7-12 during the 1994-95 academic year and whose short- and long-term outcomes were tracked for three decades.
Research Design: Difference-in-differences
Findings: Students with school-based informal mentors during HS experienced, on average:
- High School Academic Performance:
- 0.22 increase in GPA
- 2.3 percentage point decrease in course failures
- 0.2 increase in course credits earned per year
- College Attendance:
- 9.4 percentage point increase in college attendance.
- Increase in total years of educational attainment (approximately two-thirds more of a year)
- 0.22 increase in GPA
Subgroup Findings
- In general, informal mentoring had consistently positive effects across racial and gender subgroups with few statistically significant differences between groups, with the following exceptions:
- Family Income: Students from lower SES backgrounds appear to benefit most, with a 16.7 percentage point increase in college attendance, compared to 11.5 percentage points for higher SES students.
- Race/Gender: Asian male students particularly showed strong gains, with a full letter-grade GPA improvement and 1.23 additional years of schooling.
- Maximize the effectiveness of current counselors through training and structural support:Mulhern (2023) found wide variation in individual counselor impact, with the most effective counselors improving outcomes in course selection, high school graduation, and college enrollment. Personalized guidance and access to information made the biggest difference for students. Districts can strengthen existing counselor impact by investing in professional development, prioritizing opportunities for one-on-one or small group conversations between students and counselors, and promoting relationship-building. What targeted professional development can districts provide to help counselors strengthen their advising skills? How can schools ensure that counselors have time and structures in place to build meaningful relationships with students? Are there administrative or non-advising tasks that could be shifted away from counselors to free up time for direct student engagement?
- Build opportunities for informal mentoring relationships between students and staff: Kraft et al. (2023) found that students with informal mentors—teachers, counselors, or coaches—had better academic outcomes and were more likely to attend college than those without. These relationships were especially impactful for lower-income students. Informal mentoring was more prevalent in schools with a strong sense of student belonging and manageable class sizes. What support do staff such as teachers and coaches need to feel equipped to serve as mentors to students? What steps can schools take to strengthen students’ overall sense of belonging and connection to adults in the building? What school structures (e.g., extracurriculars, lunch periods, advisory blocks) could be expanded or adapted to give staff and students more informal opportunities to connect?
- Identify students who may benefit most from counseling and mentoring:
While reducing counselor caseloads benefits all students, research shows that effective counseling and informal mentoring are particularly beneficial for low-income students and those with lower academic achievement (Kraft et al., 2023; Mulhern (2023). When resources are limited, districts might prioritize those students to ensure they receive meaningful guidance. What data sources (e.g., academic performance, attendance, behavior records) should your district use to identify students who are likely to benefit most from additional counseling or mentoring support? What barriers might prevent these students from engaging with counseling and mentoring opportunities? How can your school track whether higher-need students are receiving the guidance and support they need? - Consider partnerships with local colleges: Expanding advising capacity through partnerships with local colleges can be an effective way to supplement high school counseling services.
- Examples include:
- Programs like Carolina College Advising Corps (Clayton & Worsham, 2024) and Razor C.O.A.C.H (Moore et al., 2015) train and place recent high school graduates and graduate students in high schools to provide dedicated one-on-one support in college and career planning.
- Iowa’s College and Career Transition Counselor (CCTC) program is a partnership between community colleges and high schools that places qualified counselors (employed by the community college) in one or more local high schools. CCTCs help students navigate college transitions, career exploration, and postsecondary enrollment and persistence. This position is funded through a cost-sharing arrangement between the community colleges and participating high schools, with initial start-up funding provided by the state.
- Iowa has put together a College and Career Transition Counselor Toolkit that provides information for community colleges and school districts interested in creating these types of partnerships.
- Because of the funding and coordination required for the examples provided here, these types of efforts will likely depend on invested leadership and financial support from local colleges and/or the state to be effectively developed and maintained. What local colleges or universities might your district approach to explore potential partnerships? What funding sources (state, local, or grant-based) could help launch or sustain these efforts?
- Examples include:
- Leverage peer and near-peer mentoring strategies: Districts might also explore peer or near-peer mentoring as a complementary or alternative strategy to partnerships with local colleges. For example, rural districts could use intern counselors enrolled in a college counseling program who needs to complete practicum hours, or enlisting 12th-grade students who aspire to become teachers to mentor younger students in exploring postsecondary and career pathways. How might your district create opportunities for peer or near-peer mentoring, especially in settings where formal college partnerships aren’t feasible? What existing programs or resources (e.g., alumni networks, teacher training programs) could be leveraged to support these initiatives?
- Expect stronger outcomes with sustained implementation and continued development of coaches: The Razor C.O.A.C.H. program (Moore et al., 2015) showed stronger effects in its second year of operation and in schools where implementation fidelity was high. The authors suggest that program maturation and improved training and support of the coaches were key to the increased program effectiveness in the second year. For long-term success, programs should be designed with a multi-year commitment in mind and include training, coaching, and feedback loops for continuous improvement.What steps can be taken to create a sustainable, multi-year structure for mentoring or coaching programs? Understanding that initial outcomes may not fully reflect the program’s potential, how can your district plan for ongoing assessment and adjustments to ensure continued improvement and long-term effectiveness over time? What resources or professional development opportunities can your district provide to ensure staff remain effective in coaching and mentoring roles over multiple years? How can your district ensure that new staff or counselors can quickly integrate into ongoing programs and maintain continuity in student support?